The STL containers are familiar to most C++ programmers and a fundamentally sound design. This describes a register constantly updated by a clock circuit. Consider using a variant or a pointer to base instead. In particular, it is recommended to do if one wants to switch between several user define palettes. Use return values instead, including. they do not need any special declarations to hook into the concept. The top of the palette becomes the bottom and vice versa. The larger and more complicated the function is, the more painful the workarounds get. If we cannot prove that a thread does not detach(), we must assume that it does and that it outlives the scope in which it was constructed; However, its not fine when passing such a reference upward to a larger caller scope. if the cell content is N, the color CI used will be the color number in colors[N],etc. In this case, the copy of elements implied by the swap implementation technique could cause an order of magnitude increase in cost: By writing directly to the target elements, we will get only the basic guarantee rather than the strong guarantee offered by the swap technique. int is compatible with C enums. Users will be surprised if copy and move dont reflect the way constructors and destructors work. Code clarity and readability. Additionally, an array of char or unsigned char may be initialized by a UTF-8 string literal, optionally enclosed in braces. However, over time, code fragments can turn up in unexpected places. dynamic enforcement tools: Clangs Thread Sanitizer (aka TSAN) You can, of course, generalize those functions using auto or concepts. A member function should be marked const unless it changes the objects observable state. and errors (when we didnt deal correctly with semi-constructed objects consistently). Even objects with static storage duration can be problematic if used from detached threads: if the For example: The C++11 initializer list rule eliminates the need for many constructors. (It is a Once completely enforced through a combination of style rules, static analysis, and library support, this profile. : clause, any compiler worth using will figure out what it resolves to and remove the condition. Any usage beyond that is undefined behavior which may include writing to freed memory. Efficiency. of objects with static storage duration, and thus accesses to such objects might race. In very rare cases, if you have measured that the dynamic_cast overhead is material, you have other means to statically guarantee that a downcast will succeed (e.g., you are using CRTP carefully), and there is no virtual inheritance involved, consider tactically resorting static_cast with a prominent comment and disclaimer summarizing this paragraph and that human attention is needed under maintenance because the type system cant verify correctness. The compiler does not read comments, and without reading other code you do not know whether p really points to n elements. We can ban, restrain, or detect the individual problem categories separately, as required and feasible for individual programs. Address of an lvalue may be taken by built-in address-of operator: A modifiable lvalue may be used as the left-hand operand of the built-in assignment and compound assignment operators. A(S) is defined to the largest possible power-of-two smaller to EIGEN_MAX_STATIC_ALIGN_BYTES. Also, if the type of a variable is changed, code using it will have to be modified. Recursively remove this object from a list. After the return from a function its local objects no longer exist: Here on one popular implementation I got the output: I expected that because the call of g() reuses the stack space abandoned by the call of f() so *p refers to the space now occupied by gx. such as string and vector, that needs to do free store allocations. It makes it easy to understand at a glance whether a header is being included from a local relative file versus a standard library header or a header from the alternate search path (e.g. Also, there are real-world examples where template metaprogramming expresses the fundamental ideas better than run-time code. The snag is that f() might be in a library we do not control and the new exception is not anything that use() can do Given that special attention was needed for the destructor (here, to deallocate), the likelihood that the implicitly-defined copy and move assignment operators will be correct is low (here, we would get double deletion). To bring an object into a surrounding scope, thereby extending its lifetime. The use of class alerts the programmer to the need for an invariant. as trivial as adding std::async or std::thread strategically, or it can Set whether all colors should return grayscale values. Definition at line 1322 of file TColor.cxx. The key is to define the conventional constructors, assignments, destructors, and iterators Fortunately, most (all?) This can be most confusing. A widely used library is more likely to be kept up-to-date and ported to new systems than an individual application. the same memory. Should destruction behave virtually? owner represents ownership, zstring represents a C-style string. Flag empty statements that are not blocks and dont contain comments. Controlling the behavior of a function through a global (namespace scope) variable (a call mode) is implicit and potentially confusing. Warn if any non-variadic template parameter is not constrained by a concept (in its declaration or mentioned in a requires clause). const std::initializer_list< std::initializer_list<, Generated on Thu Apr 21 2022 13:07:56 for Eigen by. IDEs also tend to have defaults and a range of alternatives. You might need to cast away const when calling const-incorrect functions. They clearly differentiate between erroneous return and ordinary return. Both, the enum and the std::map, should be declared as static to make them visible only to the code of this particular .cpp file, which helps to avoid global namespace pollution (for more on this see John Lakos, Large Scale C++ Software Design, Addison-Wesley). We must aim for gradual adoption. Specifying values is necessary to match conventional values (e.g., Month) A constructor defines how an object is initialized (constructed). The standard provides flexibility for compilers to implement This method should be called before the ApplicationImp is created (which initializes the GUI colors). OpenGL Mathematics (GLM) is a header only C++ mathematics library for graphics software based on the OpenGL Shading Language (GLSL) specifications.. GLM provides classes and functions designed and implemented with the same naming conventions and functionality than GLSL so that anyone who knows GLSL, can use GLM The user code deals only with future Additionally, this upper limit may be influenced by the type of allocator used to construct the vector because an allocator is free to manage memory any way it wants. An interface is a contract between two parts of a program. Informal/non-explicit ranges are a source of errors. Flag variables that are potentially updated (have a non-const use) in both the loop control iteration-expression and the loop body. If a destructor uses operations that could fail, it can catch exceptions and in some cases still complete successfully Several non-lvalue C expressions became lvalue expressions in C++. The Standard Template Library (STL), part of the ANSI/ISO C++ Standard, offers everything needed to get really close to the C# sample. This eliminates a large class of insidious and hard-to-find errors, including the (in)famous buffer overflow errors. If you feel tempted to use some post-constructor initialization or two-stage initialization idiom, try not to do that. They are not useful, and make types difficult to use by making them either uncopyable or partially uncopyable for subtle reasons. You can look there for an explanation. An inline function is part of the ABI. Look for functions called with all constant-expression arguments. Compilers already know and sometimes warn. Now, a compiler that does not know that val can change will most likely implement that switch using a jump table with five entries. Static Public Attributes inherited from llvm::Value: static constexpr unsigned MaxAlignmentExponent = 32 The maximum alignment for instructions. (See Item 13.). Use of the other casts can violate type safety and cause the program to access a variable that is actually of type X to be accessed as if it were of an unrelated type Z: Like other casts, dynamic_cast is overused. Something immutable cannot change unexpectedly. Facilities defined in the standard, such as conditional, enable_if, and tuple, are portable and can be assumed to be known. By parallelism we refer to performing a task (more or less) simultaneously (in parallel with) on many data items. Look for classes with lots of members that do nothing but throw. TF1 graphics function is via the TH1 and TGraph drawing functions.. Eigen provides a number of typedefs covering the usual cases. In addition to the operations for which the language offers default implementations, Definition at line 2034 of file TColor.cxx. Definition at line 1741 of file TColor.cxx. Furthermore 0 (zero) is often used to indicate success. Flag if using a build mode that compiles code as C. C++ is more expressive than C and offers better support for many types of programming. For aggregates (struct/array/vector) return the constant that corresponds to the specified element if possible, or null if not. Use separate lines for each statement, the branches of an if, and the body of a for. Messy, low-level code breeds more such code. Flag all unnamed lock_guards and unique_locks. C++ implementations tend to be optimized based on the assumption that exceptions are rare. They implicitly rely on the element type having less-than (<) defined. The function can also be written in such a way that it will accept any time duration unit. are no longer protected by an enforced invariant. There are commercial and open-source tools that try to address this problem, An entity is a permitted result of a constant expression if it is an object with static storage duration that either is not a temporary object or is a temporary object whose value satisfies the above constraints, or if it is a non-immediate function. RAII (Resource Acquisition Is Initialization) is the simplest, most systematic way of preventing leaks. An unconstrained template argument is a perfect match for anything so such a template can be preferred over more specific types that require minor conversions. The guidelines are not a random set of unrelated rules where you can randomly pick and choose with an expectation of success. In the general case, the constructor takes a list of rows, each row being represented as a list of coefficients: Each of the inner initializer lists must contain the exact same number of elements, otherwise an assertion is triggered. This is a general and powerful technique for compile-time algorithm selection. Standard concepts (as provided by the GSL and the ISO standard itself) that are needed to implement key abstractions, such as vector, span, lock_guard, and future, we use the libraries Clarity. To avoid the tedium and the possibility of errors, try to follow the rule of zero. Flag any class that has non-const data members with different access levels. Return true if the value is not the smallest signed value, or, for vectors, does not contain smallest signed value elements. Copying, use, modification, and creation of derivative works from this project is licensed under an MIT-style license. void SetTitle(const char *title="") override. Using only the bare language, every task is tedious (in any language). The function may be a simple function based on a TFormula expression or a precompiled user function. So when to initialize in real life? This is useful to create palettes. This makes the functions reseating explicit. If we applied the rule, wed get something like. Definition at line 1511 of file TColor.cxx. He has published several articles about OS/2 programming and the implementation of the Singleton Design Pattern at EDM/2, and has written the doc and ppt of the chapter DNA to .NET Design Path of the Microsoft .NET Readiness Kit. allocations, deallocations, or range checks (string takes care of those). Some of these expressions are unconditionally bad (e.g., they rely on undefined behavior). Furthermore, it can lead to deadlock. discussion of dangling pointer prevention and discussion of ownership. Dont define an object before it is needed. So for a string stream, s << endl just inserts a single character, '\n'. It is even possible to slow down code by compile-time computation. Follow the local patterns and idioms, and adapt this guideline as appropriate. If Gadget is cheap to move out of a function (i.e., is small or has an efficient move operation), just return it by value (see out return values): If pointer semantics are required (e.g., because the return type needs to refer to a base class of a class hierarchy (an interface)), return a smart pointer.. This section contains follow-up material on rules and sets of rules. Dynamic-size means that the numbers of rows or columns are not necessarily known at compile-time. Exceptions: If you need an ABI-stable interface, you might have to provide a base implementation and express the (type-safe) template in terms of that. To avoid copying it is necessary to =delete its copy operations from lvalues: Note that deleted functions should be public. The concept is basically the template Point(T const& cpt) : X(cpt.X), Y(cpt.Y) {} constructor, and it has the same problem: If T does not itself have X and Y members, but it is convertible to Contoso::Point, we want to convert it and then use the coordinates from the conversion.The goal is to have the class act as if it had a constructor that accepted a (e.g., it can be difficult to distribute an update to a base class), As the hierarchy grows and more data is added to, implementation: Impl::Smiley -> Impl::Circle -> Impl::Shape, Flag a derived to base conversion to a base with both data and virtual functions Some is possible, do at least something. Touching color chips have the same hue, but with different brightness and vividness. This is a major source of errors. Readability. The Lifetime rules will also provide general rules that flag escaping pointers and references including via lambdas.). this can cause problems like unintentionally invoking unconstrained function templates. For example, common vector implementations have one owning pointer and two non-owning pointers. Worse, a direct or indirect call to an unimplemented pure virtual function from a constructor or destructor results in undefined behavior. Many, possibly most, problems with exceptions stem from historical needs to interact with messy old code. fenced code blocks (consistently using indented vs. fenced is under discussion), tables (none yet but well likely need them, and this is a GFM extension), application code written before the guidelines were formulated or known, libraries written to older/different standards, code that we just havent gotten around to modernizing. We want to eliminate two particular classes of errors: Note: On a class defined as final, it doesnt matter whether you put override or final on an individual virtual function. Usually this means that the derived type needs to override a base virtual function or needs access to a protected member. For string streams (specifically ostringstream), the insertion of an endl is entirely equivalent In 10 years time? Return true if there is exactly one use of this value. flight control software) typically also ban the use of dynamic (heap) memory. finally can ease the pain a bit. A function definition is a function declaration that also specifies the functions implementation, the function body. ISO Standard, use lower case only and digits, separate words with underscores: Stroustrup: Another benefit of striving for efficiency is that the process forces you to understand the problem in more depth. - Alex Stepanov. SCARY. In particular, someone has to remember to somewhere write. such as auto completers, static analyzers, and debuggers. This can be most confusing. Even if it does something sensible for you, it might do something different on another compiler (e.g., the next release of your compiler) or with a different optimizer setting. Warn if & is user-defined without also defining -> for the result type. In fact, this was the case case prior to the release of C++11.To be fair, it is still technically the case, in that the C++ standard states that you can only switch over integral types. We dont need to mention it for each member function. low-level functions. Unfortunately, compilers cannot catch all such errors and unfortunately, the bugs arent always as simple to spot as in this small example. written in support of Stroustrups Programming: Principles and Practice using C++. Such systems (e.g. Will the caller remember to free() the returned pointer? October 2009. WebConstructors are places where non-static class member initialization is done. Just dont overdo it. Others are simply so complicated and/or unusual that even good programmers could misunderstand them or overlook a problem when in a hurry. eraseFromParent - This method unlinks 'this' from the containing module and deletes it. it will immediately go back to sleep, waiting. We expect that most large organizations, specific application areas, and even large projects will need further rules, possibly further restrictions, and further library support. We make this project available to friendly users to use, copy, modify, and derive from, hoping for constructive input. For example, it allows for some checking during initial experimentation. Ideally, the in-bounds guarantee should be statically enforced. In general, passing function objects gives better performance than passing pointers to functions. Avoid used-before-set errors and their associated undefined behavior. Webit must be immediately initialized the full-expression of its initialization, including all implicit conversions, constructors calls, etc, must be a constant expression A constexpr function must satisfy the following requirements: it must not be virtual its return type must be LiteralType each of its parameters must be LiteralType Flag passing a non-trivially-copyable type to. The rules are designed to allow gradual adoption. Save a color with index > 228 as a C++ statement(s) on output stream out. Here are some (very general) ideas: Whichever way you choose, please note that the most advantages come with the highest conformance to the guidelines. The expressions a.mf and p->mf, where mf is a non-static member function, and the expressions a. Hopefully it was able to convince you of the simplicity and elegance of switch statements on string values. This section contains rules for people who need high performance or low-latency. depending on the number of available color planes. Readability. TF1 graphics function is via the TH1 and TGraph drawing functions.. Use standard algorithms where appropriate, instead of writing some own implementation. Many coding standards, rules, and guidelines have been written for C++, and especially for specialized uses of C++. Use libraries with good interfaces. Conversely: These three functions all print their arguments (appropriately). You can always =default the implementation if the default body is fine and youre just writing the function to give it the proper visibility and virtuality. This is a major part of the discussion of C++s model for type- and resource-safety. There is little difference in the opportunities for name clashes in an N-line .cpp containing a using namespace X, Not everyone has the operator table memorized. User defined scalar types are supported as well (see. Minimize resource retention. The first declaration of month is explicit about returning a Month and about not modifying the state of the Date object. Do not represent non-hierarchical domain concepts as class hierarchies. If you intend to call your own helper function helper(t) with a value t that depends on a template type parameter, std::map::operator[] can be used for two things: To set a value of a key (as you can see in Initialize()) and to retrieve the value associated with it (look at the switch statement in the main() function). C++ value categories and decltype demystified, https://en.cppreference.com/mwiki/index.php?title=cpp/language/value_category&oldid=144291, subscripting an array rvalue resulted in lvalue. Assuming that Arithmetic requires both + and +=, we have constrained the user of sum to provide a complete arithmetic type. In particular, the compiler can interleave execution of the two expressions: Note that std::addressof() always yields a built-in pointer. We would dearly love to hear about experience and about tools used. It is nearly impossible to write useful code if these operations can fail, and even if something does go wrong it nearly never makes any sense to retry. A meaningful/useful concept has a semantic meaning. Note the use of the s suffix to ensure that the string is a std::string, rather than a C-style string. See CONTRIBUTING.md. One strategy is to add a valid() operation to every resource handle: Obviously, this increases the size of the code, doesnt allow for implicit propagation of exceptions (valid() checks), and valid() checks can be forgotten. This is a very common use of inheritance because the need for multiple different interfaces to an implementation is common The basic colors: colors with index from 0 to 50. In larger code with multiple possible throws explicit releases become repetitive and error-prone. Alternative: Use a support class that ensures that the number of elements is correct and prevents dangerous implicit conversions. This rule is part of the lifetime safety profile. Here the cache is stored as member data of a ComputationCache object, rather than as shared static state. For example, if you really need AST manipulation at compile time (e.g., for optional matrix operation folding) there might be no other way in C++. Do not return a pointer to something that is not in the callers scope; see F.43. This forces redundant instantiations that can be surprisingly costly in some real-world scenarios. If you explicitly write the copying functions, you probably need to write the destructor: If the special work in the copy constructor is to allocate or duplicate some resource (e.g., memory, file, socket), you need to deallocate it in the destructor. Better still, use RAII to ensure that the postcondition (the lock must be released) is enforced in code: Ideally, postconditions are stated in the interface/declaration so that users can easily see them. Proc. However, when there is complex logic this can lead to the following pattern that still resorts to a const_cast: Although this pattern is safe when applied correctly, because the caller must have had a non-const object to begin with, its not ideal because the safety is hard to enforce automatically as a checker rule. (Moderate) In the case of self-assignment, a move assignment operator should not leave the object holding pointer members that have been. tag is the anchor name of the item where the Enforcement rule appears (e.g., for C.134 it is Rh-public), the name of a profile group-of-rules (type, bounds, or lifetime), or a specific rule in a profile (type.4, or bounds.2) "message" is a string literal In.struct: The structure of this document. matrices which are known at compile-time to have either one row or one column. WebHere, each of the N threads that execute VecAdd() performs one pair-wise addition.. 2.2. these threads can be seen as just a function object called from some_fct. can suppress warnings related to overflow, Positions can also be transferred by iterators, indices, and references. Flag a functions whose body is simply a conditional statement enclosing a block. To fix: Use a different function, or, Ignore functions that are part of an overload set out of which at least one function accesses. Save a primitive as a C++ statement(s) on output stream "out". Initialize a color structure. If you define a destructor, you should not use the compiler-generated copy or move operation; you probably need to define or suppress copy and/or move. Beware of complementary constraints. A destructor is implicitly invoked at the end of an objects lifetime. The rule supports the view that a concept should reflect a (mathematically) coherent set of operations. Thats why evNotDefined is the first enumerator. Many have tried to solve this problem, but no general solution is known. Often, messy old code runs unnecessarily slowly because it requires outdated compilers and cannot take advantage of modern hardware. Readability. constexpr variables are initialized at compile-time, however, initialization of const variables will be delayed to runtime if a compiler decides so. You cant use Nefarious objects in standard containers: The standard library forbids all destructors used with it from throwing. A simple, common use could be expressed: Wrap traits!. 3), unintentionally invoking unconstrained function templates, How to emulate concepts if you dont have language support, CPL.2: If you must use C, use the common subset of C and C++, and compile the C code as C++, CPL.3: If you must use C for interfaces, use C++ in the calling code using such interfaces, SF.2: A header file must not contain object definitions or non-inline function definitions, SF.3: Use header files for all declarations used in multiple source files, SF.4: Include header files before other declarations in a file, SF.9: Avoid cyclic dependencies among source files, SF.11: Header files should be self-contained, SF.21: Dont use an unnamed (anonymous) namespace in a header, SF.22: Use an unnamed (anonymous) namespace for all internal/non-exported entities, Working Draft, Extensions to C++ for Modules, Modules, Componentization, and Transition, SL.2: Prefer the standard library to other libraries, SL.3: Do not add non-standard entities to namespace, SL.4: Use the standard library in a type-safe manner, SL.io.1: Use character-level input only when you have to, SL.io.2: When reading, always consider ill-formed input, A.1: Separate stable code from less stable code, A.2: Express potentially reusable parts as a library, A.4: There should be no cycles among libraries, NR.1: Dont insist that all declarations should be at the top of a function, NR.4: Dont insist on placing each class definition in its own source file, NR.6: Dont place all cleanup actions at the end of a function and, RF.C++: C++ Programming (C++11/C++14/C++17), AUTOSAR Guidelines for the use of the C++14 language in critical and safety-related systems v17.10, Boost Library Requirements and Guidelines, JSF++: JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER AIR VEHICLE C++ CODING STANDARDS, MISRA C++ 2008: Guidelines for the use of the C++ language in critical systems, Geosoft.no: C++ Programming Style Guidelines, A rationale for semantically enhanced library languages, The C++ Programming Language (4th Edition), Programming: Principles and Practice using C++, The Essence of C++: With Examples in C++84, C++98, C++11, andC++14, The Evolution of C++ Past, Present and Future, A brief introduction to C++s model for type- and resource-safety, The Guideline Support Library: One Year Later, C++ Core Guidelines - Modernize your C++ Code Base, Use the standard library in a type-safe manner, NL.1: Dont say in comments what can be clearly stated in code, NL.4: Maintain a consistent indentation style, NL.5: Avoid encoding type information in names, NL.7: Make the length of a name roughly proportional to the length of its scope, NL.16: Use a conventional class member declaration order, NL.19: Avoid names that are easily misread, NL.20: Dont place two statements on the same line, NL.21: Declare one name (only) per declaration, when you have no constraints or better ideas, Bjarne Stroustrup in his CppCon 2015 opening keynote, Writing Good C++14, Herb Sutters follow-up CppCon 2015 talk, Writing Good C++14 By Default, Provide strong resource safety; that is, never leak anything that you think of as a resource, Never return or throw while holding a resource not owned by a handle, A raw pointer or reference is never a resource handle, Never let a pointer outlive the object it points to, Use templates to express containers (and other resource handles), Return containers by value (relying on move or copy elision for efficiency), If a class is a resource handle, it needs a constructor, a destructor, and copy and/or move operations, If a class is a container, give it an initializer-list constructor, F.20, the general item about out output values. Then, a val outside the [0..4] range will cause a jump to an address that could be anywhere in the program, and execution would proceed there. Template metaprogramming is hard to get right, slows down compilation, and is often very hard to maintain. Overloaded operators can lead to order of evaluation problems: In C++17, these examples work as expected (left to right) and assignments are evaluated right to left (just as =s binding is right-to-left). people who use using namespace std are supposed to know about std and about this risk. A failure to find the required class will cause dynamic_cast to return a null value, and de-referencing a null-valued pointer will lead to undefined behavior. You can statically or dynamically link a library into a program, or you can #include a header-only library. Tools that implement these rules shall respect the following syntax to explicitly suppress a rule: and optionally with a message (following usual C++11 standard attribute syntax): tag is the anchor name of the item where the Enforcement rule appears (e.g., for C.134 it is Rh-public), the In general, following the guidelines in this document (including not making variables scopes needlessly large, writing short functions that return values, returning local variables) help eliminate most need for explicit std::move. One example is a performance-critical AST hierarchy in a compiler or language analysis tool. Become an expert before shipping lock-free code for others to use. operator=(const T&) to perform the assignment and then return (non-const) An individual example of waste is rarely significant, and where it is significant, it is typically easily eliminated by an expert. Even today, there can be contexts where the rules make sense. If all members are resource handles, rely on the default special operations where possible. Avoids nasty errors from unreleased locks. Do not use traditional exception-specifications. Redundant virtual increases run-time and object-code size. Functions with complex control structures are more likely to be long and more likely to hide logical errors. After a copy x and y can be independent objects (value semantics, the way non-pointer built-in types and the standard-library types work) or refer to a shared object (pointer semantics, the way pointers work). An enumeration shows the enumerators to be related and can be a named type. For example: This is a special case of the rule that helper functions should be defined in the same namespace as their class. So its up to you which way to go. mark known missing information. Maintainability. (Note that using a reference member is almost always wrong. So far, so good, but we can easily misuse the union: Note that the type error happened without any explicit cast. One reason people have used init() functions rather than doing the initialization work in a constructor has been to avoid code replication. Lowering the chance of clashes between unrelated non-local names. See also factory functions for how to achieve the effect of a call to a derived class function without risking undefined behavior. Read contents of object with specified name from the current directory. Note that when drawing a 2D histogram h2 with the option "COL" or "COLZ" or with any "CONT" options using the color map, the number of colors used is defined by the number of contours n specified with: h2->SetContour(n). An implementer of a function should avoid setting such traps for users. Minimize surprises: nullptr cannot be confused with an Different parts of the data have different access. Default arguments simply provide alternative interfaces to a single implementation. principle of do as the ints do.. We try to resolve those using tools. This example not only violates the no naked new rule as in the previous example, it has many more problems. For example. Improved interoperability. Familiarity. a design error: for a container where the element type can be confused with the number of elements, we have an ambiguity that Obviously, defining concepts is most useful for code that can use an implementation (e.g., C++20 or later) To do so, Vector must define or delete the set of special operations (constructors, a destructor, etc.). Compute the RGB and HLS color components. Typically, the solution is to make what would have been a nested class non-local, with its own minimal set of template parameters. A narrowing conversion destroys information, often unexpectedly so. It is clear that the caller is describing a rectangle, but it is unclear what parts they relate to. Consistent use of this technique turns many classes of thread-safety errors into compile-time errors. We prefer exception-based error handling and recommend keeping functions short. Flag function declarations that use more than one of. This leads to brittle and tightly coupled code that quickly becomes a nightmare to maintain. 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